Heart of the Art

Instead of being thought of as machines, athletes are considered as complex dynamic systems, self- organized and constrained by morphological, physiological, psychological and biomechanical factors, the properties of the task and the environment. Due to this complexity, they are noticeably dependant on their initial condition and the distribution of attractors, showing fluctuations when passing from one attractor to another. The mechanism of adaptation to training, observed as a selforganization process, is transforming modern training stimuli and expected performance responses. Training loads should encourage the process of self organization in an integrated, overall way, changing the environment and the conditions to constrain the subject in the desired direction of the training process. The principle of individuality not only focuses on inputs but also on the outputs promoting the variability of the athlete's responses to each changing competition and training situation.

In conclusion, Dynamic Systems Theory is changing the view of mechanisms of adaptation to training and introducing important changes into performance targets and training methods, challenging scientists and modern coaches to find suitable solutions to optimize the training process.

Performance and training science has traditionally been deeply influenced by the mechanical conception of human beings. Although the need to integrate all aspects of training is constantly mentioned and more holistic proposals are sought, the dominant conceptual structure is still based on a Cartesian view. It conceives the organism as a machine divided into parts and performance as the sum of different qualities. Besides this, the computer metaphor is used to explain the adaptation process and determine the most commonly applied training methods. Following classical training theory, it is expected that an input (the training stimulus) should produce, after the central processing of the information, an output (the performance response).

This response has to be previously known by the subject and programmed by the coach (no correct response is expected otherwise). As there is generally just one possible correct response (the righttechnique, the right tactics ...) any deviation from this response will be considered as an error that will be corrected through repetition (necessary to achieve the automation of the correct response).

Sports technique is commonly trained by guiding athletes to copy and reproduce the correct model; conditional training is focused on supporting and enhancing this specifi ed technique, and tactical training is normally planned to produce previously determined strategies, which are expected to adapt to the opponent's weakest points, minimizing spontaneous decision-making by the team.........

Inputs should be very analytical, as they must correct any small deviation, based on division into components and focused towards microscopic parameters in order to improve isolated functions. They should be very specific, as they have to inform the program about the structure of the motor action; big enough to produce a signifi cant change in response and correct possible errors, and they should increase progressively in order to achieve continuous performance development. The research available has empirically demonstrated these principles. In strength training, for instance, specifi city is often postulated, arguing for the importance of training in the specifi c angle of the sports movement (Weir et al., 1994), the correlation of the type of training with the type of gain in strength (Rutherford et al., 1986) or with specific speed (Ewing et al., 1990). However, the tests used to confirm these hypotheses are based on closed tasks and are consequently a long way from reflecting the constantly changing reality of sports competition....